This Is What I Do Essay Example for Free

This Is What I Do EssayConformity involves the changing of ones attitudes, opinions, or behaviours. It causes sound-minded individuals to go against their better judgement, to engage in behaviour which they usually would not engage in, regular(a) accept and welcome an idea they internally disagree with, all in determine to not be a deviant from the group. When faced with a challenging or trivial task, there are two common managements of treatment the situation. One is to do so according to your own personal desires and beliefs. The other is to base the decision on the how others will view and respond to it. Remember that age in class when you thought you had the right answer but changed it because a majority of the class thought different, or that time you made fun of the nerdy boor in your class because it was considered the cool thing to do? Their ability have been no problems at the time but when you found extinct your answer was the right one and you got in trouble f or picking on the nerdy kid, the majority of us would find ourselves saying everyone else was doing it.The main reason for conforming is the guarantee that you will neer be left alone. It is so often that people commit wrong acts, then when accused, they retreat into the numbers of those involved. Personal desire, manage conformity, is essential to career even though we may not appreciate its value. At one point we want to be different from all the rest in one way or another. So we might dress a bit differently and choose to do things we sincerely like.For once, we might form our opinions based on what we really feel. However, sooner or later we are forced to change our spontaneous desires so that society does not label us as different or weird, simply because we are scared of being alone. It seems though that the more unique and out going individuals make an impression on others in life, people like Martin Luther King Jr. who took a stand for what he believed in even though the majority of people were against him.Maybe one day you stand out as unique to someone of great distinction, a C. E. O. of a major company or a director of a new movie, it could change your life indefinately to be someone offbeat from everyone else. In life we must balance our personal desires with what other people think is right, follow your own path and do what you believe in but do not disregard how others feel or think about you. one day the way you present yourself might just make the right impression on the right person.

Censorship And Right To Free Speech And Expression Philosophy Essay

Censorship And Right To Free Speech And fount Philosophy Es jointRight of free lyric, one of the fundamental construction blocks of a liberal democracy, has often been at odds with the hindrance posed by security review to the unabated coiffe of such(prenominal) slump. While the expend of censoring as a weapon to stifle counter opinions has indeed been granted socio- governmental legitimacy in regimes authoritarian as well as liberal, nonetheless, the intrinsic grandness of the role played by censoring as a shield rather than a sword can hardly be neglected. In rail line of this paper, the author intends to emphasize that the very divergent nature of social more(prenominal)(prenominal)s in different jurisdictions and across different regimes worldwide strengthens the necessity for existence of censorship, albeit in vary spirit levels to suit the differing requirements of the aforesaid regimes. Any attempt to evolve a universalistic practice has scarce little options oth erwise than to turn into more of a idiotic legitimization of Super Power Hegemonies, owing to the blatant disregard of the said inherent diversities that such universalism is likely to enforce.I disapprove of what you say, tho I will soften to the death your skilful to say it.Evelyn Beatrice Hall1Goebbels was in favor of free speech for views he liked. So was Stalin. If youre in favor of free speech, then youre in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. Otherwise, youre non in favor of free speech.Noam Chomsky2When comp atomic number 18d with the suppression of anarchy every other question sinks into insignificance. The anarchist is the resistance of humanity, the enemy of all mankind, and his is a deeper degree of criminality than whatever other. No immigrant is allowed to come to our shores if he is an anarchist and no paper published here or abroad should be permitted circulation in this country if it propagates anarchist opinions.Theodore Roosevelt3Fr ee Speech and Censorship A Brief IntroductionFree Speech is one of the primitive guarantees of a liberal democracy a right recognized by all worldwide Human Rights Documents. It is an amalgamation of the Right to granting immunity of Conscience, Thought, Choice and the eventual(prenominal) expression, without being subjected to arbitrary blocks on its enjoyment, in the bring of Censorship.Censorship, on the other hand, is the process of imposing checks, direct or indirect, governmental or otherwise, on the exercise of ones Right to Free Speech. App arently, this phenomenon can be perceived as a blunt curb on ones basic Right to Liberty, but on other plane, it can be looked at in the form of a necessary evil a limitation on ones Human Rights in order to save the Communitys Human Rights. The broad social purposes of censorship can be laid down as to ensure that ordinary members of the community are non affronted by the display of literal to which a majority of reasonable adults would object, to maintain a level of public decency, and to avoid the undesirable social effects which whitethorn function from the normalisation, by its use in entertainment or other dispersal, of undesirable material.4This paper aims to look at the interconnected nature of the two, care in capitulum the inherent diversities in different socio-political systems, and varied constructions of the two phenomena ultimately leading to the unmistakable impressions close the questions of Democracy, Politics and Power.In course of this article, the author has accepted as a foundational hypothesis the fact that throughout history and across jurisdictions, it has been noted that Censorship has been more often than not used to suppress counter-opinions be it political or religious this practice has been conferred political and legal legitimacy in jurisdictions alike, be it the most Authoritarian or the most Democratic of regimes. Suffice to say that more often than not, Censorshi p has been used as a sword rather than as a shield. However, this does not take away the intrinsic comfort of the check. Indeed, the need for Censorship is evident from the divergent nature of the social mores, albeit differently in different jurisdictions trying to evolve a universalistic practice would and then disregard these inherent diversities, and would be more of a farcical legitimization of super power hegemonies.Categories of CensorshipPaul O Higgins distinguishes Censorship into the following types5Autonomous Self-censorship brought approximately by conscious or unconscious motives, which makes an individual wither to refrain from expressing his or her views or alter the same.Social Discouragement of the expression of certain ideas, every through socialization or sanctions, which lead to the emergence of taboos.Legal Enforcement of obstruction by legal institutions such as the government, police and the courts prior censorship or penal censorship.Extra-legal Tel ephone Tapping, d-notices, check release of information about defendant at trial.Voluntary When an institution with shared common beliefs lays down upon constituents limitations on what they should or should not say or do, without sanctions Press Council norms, etc.Subterranean When an individual or institution uses powers set aside for another purpose to impose censorship without direct government involvement political censorship.Free Speech and Censorship An International Human Rights RecognitionFree Speech is an internationally guaranteed Civil and policy-making Right. However, this Right is subject to Reasonable Restrictions in the form of Censorship in most Human Rights Treaties and Systems. The main reason that can be attributed to such restraint is the requirement of public policy the apprehensions about the abhorrent effects that an unbridled exercise of this Right may produce. Given below is a list of the commissariat from different Human Rights Treaties both Inte rnational and Regional, which deal with the Human Right to Free Speech, and the operation of Censorship upon it.Article 19, Universal Declaration of Human Rights Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, pose and impart information and ideas through both media and regardless of frontiers.Article 19, International plight on Civil and Political Rights (1) Everyone shall run through the right to hold opinions without interference. (2) Everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. (3) The exercise of the rights extendd for in paragraph 2 of this article carries with it special duties and responsibilities. It may on that pointfore be subject to certain rest rictions, but these shall only be such as are provided by jurisprudence and are necessary (a) For respect of the rights or reputations of others (b) For the aegis of national security or of public order (ordre public), or of public health or morals.General Comment No. 10 (29/06/83) Paragraph 1 requires protection of the right to hold opinions without interference. This is a right to which the Covenant permits no exception or restriction. Paragraph 2 requires protection of the right to freedom of expression, which includes not only freedom to impart information and ideas of all kinds, but excessively freedom to seek and receive them regardless of frontiers and in whatever medium, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice. Paragraph 3 expressly stresses that the exercise of the right to freedom of expression carries with it special duties and responsibilities and for this reason certain restrictions on the right are permitt ed which may relate either to the interests of other persons or to those of the community as a exclusively.Article 10, European Convention on Human Rights (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public delegacy and regardless of frontiers. This article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises. (2) The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, gibes, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a representative society, in the interests of national security, territorial integrity or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information recei ved in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.Article 13, Inter-American Convention on Human Rights (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of thought and expression. This right includes freedom to seek, receive, and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing, in print, in the form of art, or through any other medium of ones choice. (2)The exercise of the right provided for in the foregoing paragraph shall not be subject to prior censorship but shall be subject to subsequent annoyance of liability, which shall be expressly established by law to the extent necessary to ensure (a)respect for the rights or reputations of others or (b) the protection of national security, public order, or public health or morals. (3) The right of expression may not be restricted by indirect methods or means, such as the abuse of government or private controls over newsprint, radio broadcasting frequencies, or equi pment used in the dissemination of information, or by any other means tending to impede the communicating and circulation of ideas and opinions. (4) Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph 2 above, public entertainments may be subject by law to prior censorship for the sole purpose of regulating access to them for the moral protection of childhood and adolescence. (5) Any propaganda for war and any advocacy of national, racial, or religious hatred that constitute incitements to lawless violence or to any other similar action against any person or assembly of persons on any globes including those of race, color, religion, language, or national origin shall be considered as offenses punishable by law.Declaration of tenets on Freedom of Expression Freedom of expression in all its forms and manifestations is a fundamental and inalienable right of all individuals. Additionally, it is an indispensable requirement for the very existence of a democratic society Every person has the right to seek, receive and impart information and opinions freely under terms set forth in Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights. All people should be afforded equal opportunities to receive, seek and impart information by any means of communication without any discrimination for reasons of race, color, sex, language, religion, political or other opinions, national or social origin, economic status, birth or any other social conditionPrior censorship, direct or indirect interference in or pressure exerted upon any expression, opinion or information transmitted through any means of oral, written, artistic, visual or electronic communication must be prohibited by law. Restrictions to the free circulation of ideas and opinions, as well as the arbitrary imposition of information and the imposition of obstacles to the free flow of information violate the right to freedom of expressionPrior conditioning of expressions, such as truthfulness, timeliness or impartiality, is i ncompatible with the right to freedom of expression recognized in international instruments.These inherent variations in the level and nature of governmental control over Freedom of Expression also accounted for in the National Constitutions, Statutes and discriminatory Decisions collectively constitute the subject-matter of an interesting study, especially in light of the fact that they are also declaratory of the extent of democratization and totalitarianism inherent in these countries. Thus, the First Amendment to the US Constitution6and the Glavlit System of Pre-Censorship existent in former USSR and many East European Countries7, throw light on two different ends of the spectrum. Somewhere in the middle lies the Brit-ECHR system of giving a bag full of Rights, and then putting sufficient, and very often, more than sufficient, restrictions on their enjoyment.These variations are the results of the systems of governance and the Historical Evolution of Free Speech in these na tional jurisdictions inasmuch as they account for an enormous vaunt upon those who tend to argue about the Universalistic Nature of International Human Rights.Censorship and Free Speech A Nexus with Questions of Power, Authority, Liberty and Democracy A Comparative Critique of World Systems and Disputes of TheoriesJohn Locke, one of the Founding Fathers of the Liberal View, advocated a Minimalist State intervention regime in his Life, Liberty and Property, which, agree to him, were inalienable rights.8John Stuart Mills Theory of Marketplace of Ideas stated that if we suppress an opinion, it may turn out to be true. To appropriate otherwise is to assume that we are infallible, which is not the case9. harmonise to O.W. Holmes, the best test of truth is the power of the thought to get itself accepted in the competition of the market, and that truth is the only ground upon which their wishes safely can be carried out in Abrams v. U.S.10where, in his dissenting judgement, he also l aid down that a governmental regulation on Free Speech is only justified where it is used to dispel a clear and immiment danger. Otherwise, the market should be left to determine the veracity of the assertion. This opinion of Holmes was subsequently accepted by the US Supreme judicatory when it overturned Abrams11and upheld Holmes Clear and Imminent Danger Theory in Brandanburg v. Ohio12during the Vietnam War. According to Prof. Rodney O. Smolla13, Free Speech Serves fin Purposes in a Democracy (a) As a means of participation, (a) Serving the purpose of Truth, (c) Facilitating majority rule, (d) Providing Restraint on Tyranny and Corruption by keeping the Government in Check, and (e) ensuring stability by allowing minority voices to be heard.14However, the Marketplace of Ideas rationale for Freedom of Speech has been criticized by scholars on the grounds that it is reproach to assume the assertion that all ideas will enter the marketplace of ideas, and even if they do, some idea s may drown out others merely because they enjoy dissemination through schoolmaster resources. The marketplace is also criticized for its assumption that truth will necessarily triumph over falsehood. It is visible throughout history that people may be swayed by emotion rather than reason, and even if truth ultimately prevails, enormous harm can occur in the interim. Alan Haworth, in his book Free Speech (1998)15, has suggested that the fable of a marketplace of ideas is misleading. He opines that Mills classic defence of free speech does not develop the idea of a market (as later suggested by Holmes) but essentially argues for the freedom to develop and discuss ideas in the search for truth or understanding. In developing this argument, Haworth says, Mill pictured society not as a marketplace of ideas, but as something more like a large-scale academic seminar. This implies the need for tacit standards of conduct and interaction, including some degree of mutual respect. That may w ell limit the kinds of speech that are justifiably protected.Political Extremism and CensorshipThis is an issue that is very essential and relevant in the modern-day world the question whether one should allow a platform for Fundamentalist and Extremist Organizations like the Al Qaida to propagate freely their views through their Private boob tube the Al Jazeera TV, or ought there be governmental curbs on such broadcasting. An interesting debate on this subject had been voiced in the May, 1994 issue of The shielder16, where two noted columnists argued on a similar issue related to providing a platform to the extremist British Nationalist Party.According to Seamus Milne17, who advocated a curb on the BNPs Right to Free Speech, the BNP necessarily violates the Human Rights of a large section of the population, and, by doing so, it has justified the abridgement of their Right to Freedom of Speech. The oxygen of publicity, if minded(p) to them, would help the spread of racism.On t he other hand, Polly Toynbee18argued that the banning of a particular group may set a precedent by which any group that does not conform to a norm is rendered prone to a similar ban. According to him, Free Speech is not absolute but we must be free to speak our political minds, and listen to political opinions of others, however nasty.19This statement of his has an uncanny resemblance to the Marketplace of Ideas Theory, thereby highlighting its relevance in the coeval world.Use of Offensive Language on College CampusesThe issue was the imposition of a Speech Code banning the use of offensive language at Stanford University.According to Gerald Gunther20, Speech should not and cannot be banned simply because it is offensive to substantial parts of, or a majority of, a community. The refusal to suppress offensive speech is one of the most difficult obligations the free speech principle imposes upon all of us yet it is also one of the First Amendments greatest glories indeed, it is a commutation test of a communitys commitment to free speech.However, Charles Lawrence21opined that restrictions reflected genuine demands from students from minority ethnic groups, who had through harassment been denied the Right to Equality of Education. Being a supporter of the Hobbesian Principle of a Right for a Citizen to expect from the State Security of Person, Lawrence was thus advocating the same guarantee from a Welfare State, be it at the cost of restricting the offensive operation of some others unrestricted Right.Pornography, Sexuality and Obscenity an analysis of the Changing VoicesThis is an area where views and opinions have a range encompassing a whole spectrum. For some, pornography is a threat to a moral order, whereas for others, it is a mark of emancipation from bondages.The Libertarians seek to uphold individual freedoms and oppose state interference. According to then, States authority to make laws is only pertaining to the open Sphere and not on the indi vidual choices and preferences in the Private Sphere (The First Amendment Assertion has been illustrated by Justice Thurgood marshall in Stanley v. Georgia22where he says that if First Amendment means anything at all, it means that a state has no business telling a man, sitting unaccompanied in his own house, what books he must read or what films he must watch. This liberal fundament was also supported by the Wolfendon Committee discipline in the UK. (H.L.A. Hart had also been a known supporter of a similar view and had argued for a separation of the private and the public spheres23). Sexual repression is itself more damaging than sexual openness, according to the Libertarian view.However, according to Conservatives, Pornography is a threat to moral order and stability, and the material itself is disgusting and unworthy of publicity. Moreover, the Conservatives believe that State is empowered to pass laws controlling both Public and Private activities, as has been evident from D evlins dissent to the findings of the Wolfendon Committee24.If one looks at the Feminist Movements, and the jurisprudence emerging there from, history shows changes and evolutions at every stage. Traditionally, feminists have supported the liberal cause, celebrating the need to discover the body and sexuality as a tool of emancipation from bondages. In the 1970s, Realist feminists stressed that pornography was not only damaging to womens status in society, but also dangerous to their safety. Thus, pornography not only provides the foundations for, but also is, violence against women.25Hence, according to the Liberal Feminists, pornography is not essentially a question of mere censorship, but a question of the womens Human Rights as a whole.26However, the 1990s have seen a shift in the trend. Avedon Carol27has claimed that women are suppressed not because of pornography but because of censorship. Wendy McElroy28has warned that anti-pornography legislations might result in a backlash against Feminism. Jean Seaton29has suggested that the Realist feminists run the risk of losing touch with the roots of feminism, in the Civil Liberties and emancipatory movements. Melissa Benn30argues that the problem is one of structural sexism, and censoring pornography would not solve the problem. Instead, anti-sexist laws need to be established.The underlining philosophy behind the divergent philosophies is the fact that while one looks at the issue of censorship, one can look at it from two distinct planes the Moralist plane, identifying the evils contained in what needs or needs not to be censored and a Causalist plane31, which would need to look at the effects of the commission or omission of Censorship. The decades of the Feminist Movement indicated drastic shifts in views, from the Moralist Plane to the Causalist Plane, and vice versa thereby leading to the wide discrepancy in opinions.The Use or Non-Use of Censorship in Different government activitysThis section is a sk eletal overview of the existing politico-judicial approaches towards Free Speech and Censorship on get hold of issues in the US, UK, former USSR and India, which would adequately throw light on the kind of governance and degrees of guarantee of Human Rights in the individual regimes. Interesting to note, the instances referred to would be more of acts of a Subterranean Censorship imposition of Censorship through means not directly aimed at doing so.IssueUSAUKFormer USSRIndiaSpeech that may lead to Rioting, i.e. localized violenceEdwards v. South Carolina32Clear and Present Danger Test.New York Times v. US33Prior Restraints on Speech and Press are constitutionally very suspect.Wise v. Dunning34Anyone who utters something that is likely to lead to violence can be punished.Street Corner Orator? Anti State Speeches? Unheard of. Reports about Soviet Police disallowing observance of Human Rights Daytells a taleA/19 (2) Public Order a ground for imposing restrictions. S/144, CrPC a tool for imposing preemptive indirect censorship.Counter Doctrines and Subversive GroupsAnti-Communist Activities in the 40s supported by legislations like the Smith Act and Supreme Court Decisions like Dennis v. US35where the evil produced by such Speech was Grave and not Improbable. However, situations changed post-Brandanberg.Concept of seditious libel R v. Aldred36. Any incitement to use force against State was seditious libel.Soviet Criminal Code punished Agitation or propaganda carried out with the purpose of subverting or weakening the Soviet Regime essentially, anti-Communist Campaigns.Preventive Detention Act, s/124A of the IPC and, on a broader political plane, imposition of A/356 on grounds of Breakdown of Constitutional Machinery.Criticism of the Government and Public OfficialsNew York Times v. Sullivan37No punishment if actual malice cannot be proved.Initially, strong Contempt of Court Jurisdiction, even in case of Fair Criticisms of Judicial procedures and decisions R v. Editor of New Statesman38. However, standards of stringency notably lower now.No difference between criticism and subversive activity hence, repression was the result.Sullivan standards not followed. Contempt and immunity very strong tools in the hands of the State. Moreover, imposition of MISA and Repressive Press Laws during Emergency.Sexually Oriented MaterialsMiller Test39 liberal standards.Hicklin Test40 Rigidity.Strict pre-Censorship of sexy Material by the Glavlit.Largely influenced by Hicklin gradual liberalization post Bandit Queen.The obvious conclusion that emerges out of an analysis of this Table is that the US is the countrified which, through the Constitutional Assertion of the First Amendment and a liberal, yet vigilant judiciary, and a Democratic Governance system, been the highest protectors of the Free Speech Rights. Admitted that the events of 9/11 have forced the US to make more stringent laws often aiming to curb Personal Liberties, but still, it has been a guiding light in the direction ahead, at least it seems so.But, how true is this assertion? Is it, like much other propaganda, only an ideological and hegemonic whitewash of the only surviving superpower? The list of incidents below, which deals with Governmental acts of subversion of the voice of conscience in the US and other Western Countries is self-explanatory41 Voice of America, a federally supported international broadcasting organization, decided not to air a story that included parts of a rare interview with the leader of Afghanistans ruling Taliban, Mullah Mohammed Omar.Those who deny that the military occupation of the West coast and Gaza Strip by Israel, its use of extrajudicial executions against Palestinian gunmen, the Israeli gunning down of schoolboy stone-throwers, the wholesale theft of Arab land to build homes for Jews, is in some way wrong would like all criticism of Israel to be labeled as anti-Semitic thus branding the critics statements as heinous and unwor thy of consideration.Military autopsy reports provide indisputable proof that detainees are being tortured to death while in US military custody. Yet the US corporate media are covering fire it up.Dr. Elsebeth Baumgartner currently faces up to 109 years in prison in the U.S. state of Ohio for her criticism of, and accusations of corruption against, government officials in Ohio.In Canada, school teachers have limited freedom of speech, both on and off the job, regarding certain issues (e.g., homosexuality). Chris Kempling was suspended without pay for writing letters, on his own time, to a local newspaper to object to LGBT-related material being introduced into public schools. Kempling pursued the freedom of speech issue all the way to the Supreme Court of Canada without success.By the Official Secrets Act, the London government has the power, throughout the UK, to order that certain subjects are abs

Impact of Communication Technology on Politics and Economics

Impact of Communication Technology on Politics and EconomicsImpact of Communication Technologies on Political and Economic cultivationJoe OwczarskiIntroductionModern-day inn is witnessing the continuous creation of innovative mediums concerning communicatings technology that are non only pleasant to use but cut-price as well. Such digital converse tools include mobile phones, smart phones, and the Internet. It is not a secret that they consecrate been sure-fire in bringing a drastic revolution in the methods of learning-sharing and communication. It is not surprising that these innovative technologies throw off wedge all aspect of pots lives, be it political, religious, educational, professional, social, or frugalal.Innovations in information and communication technologies (ICTs) down not only increased the availability of innumerable products and services but catch excessively reduced their prices. As a result, the inexpensiveness of and approachability to ICTs bind caused a great reduction in the costs associated both with doing business and with organizing social and political movements (Hart, 2010). The tatty availability of ICTs has also declined the costs of communication and transportation.From an economic point of view, there have been declines in the costs related to coordination and transaction. These declining patterns have consequently make the international trade and detonating device investment to r severally extremely high levels. In addition, the cost reductions have also lessened the signifi housece of geographical blanks in international business. As distance has lost its importance in todays digitalized world, there has been an increase in both political and economic activities due to the trending globalization (Hart, 2010).Impact of audacious Communication Technologies on Politics and Political DevelopmentAs far as politics is concerned, the inexpensive communication technologies have made a horrifying impact on bot h domestic and worldwide political phenomenon. In particular, the Internet and social media has contributed greatly in the development of political context and understanding. The blogs as well as the discussions and arguments that are conducted on the Web have provided people a platform to openly voice their views and beliefs regarding political aspects. Although a lot of people argue that social media and related communication technologies have nothing to contribute to politics many oppose this point of view. bargain-priced communication technologies have contend a major role in the contemporary era for making political processes more free, autonomous, and independent (Unwin, 2012).It would not be incorrect to state that the ICTs have offered exceptional liberties to the common man who is now able to dramatically impact the political phenomenon through cell phones, the Internet, and the social media sites. Communication technologies have emerged as a powerful tool for the politic ians and governments as well. The political leaders and governmental authorities are capable of spreading their messages, agendas, and policies to the general public, directly and sixpennyly. For instance, mobile text put across is now used by both political parties and governments to encourage public to vote for them in elections (Unwin, 2012).Likewise, the Internet and the social media is also playing a primal role in making people aware about the current incidents that take place worldwide. Detailed stories and images enable people to receive the latest information about political movements and happenings around the world. In this manner, barefaced communication technologies have enhanced global awareness. The example of Syria is an important one. This is because social media sites and other communication mediums have made people aware of the continuing conflicts in Syrian regime (Unwin 2012).It is true that the globalization phenomenon has interconnected the states and peopl e. This interconnectedness has also influenced the opinions of people who use communication technologies to share their opinions with others. On a global level, globalization has also undermined the concept of a sovereign state. States are now interdependent due to global policies that have made it impossible for them to shield themselves from external influences.As people are beginning to use cheap communication technologies more progressively, there have been profits in the overall communication between people belonging to diverse political regimes. These enhancements in ICTs have made it possible for people to share information and noesis rapidly and easily. Moreover, the cheap communication technologies have also enhanced the fusion of different cultures. In addition, the acquired awareness has made people question the governmental authorities. As a matter of fact, revolutionary innovations in ICTs have undermined the autonomous and monarch status of particular political syste ms, such as the one in lay East (Unwin, 2012).It can be concluded that the contemporary ICTs have offered remarkable opportunities to people to modify the rules of the long-established political game. On the other hand, even though cheap ICTs have tremendously changed the international political map, this revolution has not particularly affected the marginalized and poor people. Without a doubt the use of cheap communication technologies has impacted the political development and processes. Nevertheless, it completely depends on the individuals observation whether he considers it a good or bad change (Healey, 2011).Impact of Cheap Communication Technologies on Economy and Economic DevelopmentAs mentioned, communication technology in the current era has become extraordinarily cheap, user-friendly, and accessible. Although ICTs are taken for granted by people, communication devices and services have been triumphant in transforming economies as well as the lives of millions of people throughout the world. It is significant to mention that cheap communication technologies are being used by people in the developing countries in greater ways as compared to people belonging to the develop world.The penetration of information and communication technologies has a considerable impact on the economic development. ICTs have opened up new avenues for supporting economy in the recent times. Cheap communication technologies are acknowledged to have a significant impact on economic growth as they are bear on education, health sectors, agricultural output, income, poverty, and living standards.Communication technologies have tremendously facilitated the attainment and taking in of knowledge. They have offered extraordinary opportunities to developing countries for the enhancement of their educational systems, improvement of policy making and implementation, and widening of the assortment of opportunities for both affluent and the poor. It is important to highlight that ICT s have contributed in reducing the sense of isolation tolerated by poorest members of the society. It is not a secret that when poor are provided sufficient opportunities, they also contribute in the economic development of the country by playing their productive part. Thus, cheap communication technologies have opened access to knowledge, education, and employment in ways that could not be imagined in the past times (Reddi, 2011).The issues prevalent in society today mostly revolve around poverty. The economic development of a region principally depends on the standard and acquisition of education. This is because an educated society can efficiently and effectively work for the progression and development of its country. This realization has made almost every country to expand its demand for education at every level for the political, social, and economic development. However, many countries give limited budgets to their education sectors after facing the contrasting demand for bet ter investment in resources that are undeniable for human survival (food, shelter, etc.). However, the utilization and employment of communication technologies have offered alternate solutions to provide access and impartiality to students and teachers. ICTs have also suppressed the need for mental synthesis schools and colleges. Instead, they have provided the concept of e-learning for convenient teaching and learning (Reddi, 2011).Cheap information and communication technologies have provided agriculturalists and farmers with opportunities to increase their yield and productivity, thus leading to economic progression. lively technology is considered to be an outstandingly critical tool for the improvement and enhancement of the competence of the agriculture and food sectors. Not only this, it is also regarded as a potential catalyst to help in raising the incomes of innumerable poor farmers found all over the world. This augmented efficiency is exceedingly important as it could lead to food losses in smaller quantity. A decrease in food losses means the growing demand for sufficient and inexpensive supplies of healthy food could be met eventually. When people are provided with self-sufficient resources, economy develops and grows automatically (Kirk, Steele, Delb Crow, 2011).The cheap communication technologies, especially mobile services, have enabled businesses, companies and organizations to directly tactile sensation and interact with different members in the value chain. This interrelation has also helped in visibility of issues, competence and excellence. The best potential benefits for the smallholder farmers can be spawned by enabling them to take advantage of mobile financial payments and mobile information provision. In India, for instance, the smallholder farmers of remote areas have benefitted from this service greatly as the mentioned services have each brought approximately 40% of the total anticipated raise in agricultural revenues (Kirk , Steele, Delb Crow, 2011). As a result, the countrys economy has grown significantly. In short, ICTs have enabled poor families to diminish their everyday expenditures related to physical labor, time, and energy. As a result, communication technologies have caused an exceptional positive impact on the incomes and livelihoods of many rustic families.Communication technologies have also facilitated the reduction of information gaps and restrictions inherent in marketplaces where consumers and producers have little means of comparing commodity prices between distant markets (Zambrano Seward, 2010). ICTs are presently working as a catalytic tool in the improvement and expansion of development programming. In addition, the advancement in mobile technologies and their accessibility to rural areas have also contributed towards sustainable development. Thus, the technological change has introduced ways that have made the economic growth sustainable. The communication technologies are, i n fact, sustainable technologies that are helping people and governments meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Beder, 2006).Communication technologies have offered equal economic and employment opportunities to people who reside in cosmopolitan and rural areas. ICTs have not only increased productivity but have also made the market work extremely efficient. However, it is important to highlight that the extent of the economic growth outcomes can be different. ICT is a platform that has reached and will reach populations that have low literacy and income levels.Consequently, ICT is emerging as the leading distribution platform that provides public and private services to innumerable people. As there was no or minimal connectivity mediums in rural areas, the underdeveloped areas did not receive the deserved services and facilities. However, the emergence of ICTs has made it possible for underprivileged people to access financial services, market information, health services, and education services. In contrast, it is evident in the present times that the wireless platform has promoted new and innovative social and economic opportunities for the poor rabble at all levels.ConclusionIn closing, cheap communication technologies have brought significant changes in the traditional ways of socialization, business tasks execution, education attainment, and delivery of services. high-velocity Internet, in particular, has changed the ways of doing businesses, transformation of public service delivery, and democratization of innovation. There is no doubt in the fact that the businesses that are using cheap communication technologies have demonstrated more production, faster growth, increased investment, and high profits. Similarly, governments and political parties that have employed cheap communication technologies are also receiving better outcomes in the development of democratic political structu re.In short, cheap information and communication technologies have revealed a transformative power on a global level. It is important for the governments to fulfil the importance of ICT potentials and educate the populations about them in order to reduce poverty, increase economic development, and develop a fine political sense. Therefore, steps must be taken to educate people about the significance of employing ICTs in positive ways for the development and progression of todays global village.BibliographyBeder, S. (2006).Environmental Principles and Policies An Interdisciplinary Introduction. Hoboken Taylor and Francis.Hart, J. (2010). tuition Technologies and the Global Political Economy. InThe International Studies Encyclopedia. Chichester, West Sussex, U.K. Wiley-Blackwell.Healey, J. (2011).Social Impacts of Digital Media. Thirroul, N.S.W. Spinney Press.Reddi, U. R. V. (2011).Primer 1 An Introduction to ICT for Development. Asian and Pacific Training Centre for Information and Communication Technology for Development (APCICT).Unwin, T. (2012, September 1). Social Media and Democracy Critical Reflections. Retrieved November 28, 2014, from http//www.cpahq.org/cpahq/cpadocs/Unwin CPA Social media and democracy.pdfKirk, M., Steele, J. Delb, C. Crow, L. (2011). Connected Agriculture The Role of Mobile in Driving Efficiency and Sustainability in the intellectual nourishment and Agriculture Value Chain.Vodafone. Retrieved November 29, 2014, from http//www.vodafone.com/content/dam/vodafone/about/sustainability/2011/pdf/connected_agriculture.pdfZambrano, R., Seward, R. (2010). Mobile Technologies and Empowerment Enhancing Human Development Through Participation and Innovation. Retrieved November 29, 2014, from http//unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un-dpadm/unpan048480.pdf

Health and Social Care Essays red dot system

Health and Social C ar Essays trigger-happy detail systemIntroductionIn the oft frantic and univers aloney pressured world of the AE departments of this countrys hospitals, mis pledges get made. This is a fact of life. In either human endeavour this is sadly true. Until recently, the blame culture that was prevalent deep down the NHS, made certain defensive behaviour patterns amongst rung nigh endemic (Vincent, 1994). It is unmatched of the characteristics of a professional life that you acquit to take responsibility for your actions. If you take the wrong action, you will be criticised. This defensive attitude was, to a tumescent extent, fostered by the professional health insurers who, worried ab stunned paying f every(prenominal) out large quantities of their funds, demanded secrecy, no apology and a defensive stance from those that they insured.(Clinical Services Committee)It became app bent to those who were in a position to waste an overview of the stead that suc h a situation was actually in nobodys involvement (Barley, 2000). Healthc be professionals were practising defensive medicine, unhurrieds were being kept in the dark when mistakes were made, and most important of all, because problems were non examined in an open and shaping way, productive lessons were non learnt. All that was happening was that defensive stances were becoming entrenched.The advent of the no-blame culture is helping to erode these stances and attitudes (Aldridge 2000). It is allowing the development of holds which may help the efficiency of our hospitals and run the patient with a violate service.The red spread system arose as a product of twain of these factors. The pressure on the AE department staff is ofttimes relentless and great. The structure of the system is that many finiss atomic number 18 taken by comparatively inexperienced staff members and often not the most leave for the decision that needs to be taken. Huge numbers of roentgen rays ar e seen by junior doctors and decisions regarding treatment are initially made before a senior specialiser has a chance to oversee them. It would follow, by any common sense analysis of the situation, that any measure that could help in the decision making go should be welcomed.This argument is taken further by the article by Vincent et al. (1988) . In the days before the red dot system was seriously considered, Vincent and his colleagues carried out a study of the radiological errors made by junior hospital doctors. They found an error rate of 35% when the X-Ray was assessed by the SHO alone. For errors with a clinically significant impact the rate was 39% (of abnormal drives).The red dot system represents a mechanism to try to address this gap. It involves the skiagramer usually, plainly not always, the one who has taken the film giving the clinician some feed back. Radiographers see many thousands of films and are generally in truth familiar with the structures that they sho w. Quite apart from their baronial training, just now by everyday familiarity and experience, they get to know what is normal and what is not. The radiographer is wherefore well placed to recognise an abnormality even though they may not full appreciate the full clinical significance of what is on the film. The same argument can be applied to the clinician, who can generally recognise pathology in a patient but may not be so familiar with the X-Ray changes.The red dot system requires the radiographers to examine the film after it has been logical by the clinician. If they feel that there is an abnormality on it they will place a self-adhesive red dot on it to denote that they believe that it contains an abnormality. Clearly this does not relieve the clinician of the responsibility of examining the film as, the well-grounded responsibility for interpreting the film mustiness relief with him. This is only effortable since even the most experienced radiologist would only give a wrap up on what he could see on the film, the full significance of the changes seen can only be fully assessed by a healthcare professional who has as well as seen and assessed the patient. As we will discuss later, the converse argument that the absence of a red dot does not place that there isnt an abnormality it only denotes that the radiographer hasnt seen one.The red dot systemIn a letter to the BMJ Keith Piper (2003) outline the case for the red dot system and the radiographer account system (See on). It was initially suggested by the Audit Commission in 1993 that radiographers could be trained to interpret certain images and this was found to be of particular interest in view of the difficulties that some departments currently experience with the coverage serviceThe first accredited course was run in 1994 many radiographers have since been reporting on primary skeletal X-Rays in AE departmentsPiper points out that the system is designed to reduce errors in reportin g X-Rays. It is ultimately totally reliant on the radiographs being finally reported by a senior radiologist in a timely fashion. Unfortunately, this is not always the case as Beggs pointed out in 1990 when it was found that over 20% of UK teaching hospitals did not report on all accident and emergency filmsWith specific reference to the red dot system, the letter by Aldridge and Freeland (2000) passes comment on the system which is in use in their hospital and, having audited it, they present their results. The system in use conforms to that currently depict by British Association of Accident and taking into custodys guidelines (1983). The important facets of their system includeThe rapid return of X-Rays to the requesting clinicianReporting of X-Rays by a consultant radiologist in spite of appearance 24 hrs.Telephone recall of patients who have mistakes picked upThe use of the red dot system by the radiographersThe use of such X-Rays for teaching purposes for staffAs far as the audit of the red dot system was concerned, they report the last audit showed an 1.5% traitorously dictatorial result, 2.0% false negative result with the rest categorised as true positive or negative results. The authors felt that this represented an excellent approach to what they described as an error prone activity, simplification mistakes by accident and emergency staff (often junior), increasing patient satisfaction, and reducing long term patient morbidity and litigation. This letter is a significant break up of evidence as it is written by two clinicians who are all the way anxious to assess the system and to nominate it work. They appreciate the problems, quantify them and address them by placing safeguards to minimise problems. Significantly, they suggest the use of the red dot system where it has picked up omissions by the clinical staff to be the basis of teaching junior staff in an attempt to further reduce potential problems.These results should be seen in the c ontext of a study by de Lacey et al.(client to supply date) who considered the accuracy of casualty officers adaptation or X-Rays in their departments. They found that by comparing the casualty officers interpretation with that of a radiologist, it only compared favourably in 83% of cases. The 17% discrepancy all the way represents a major(ip) burden in terms of clinical implications for the patient, financial implications for the hospital and possibly litigation implications for the casualty officer. The study also examines the implications of a slow reporting system (by the radiologist). It was found to reduce their workload by 25% by restricting their reporting to those films which the casualty officer was unsure or perspective may have an abnormality. It clearly follows from this that any measure that is likely to increase efficiency inaccuracy of reporting is likely to have benefits of both economy and patient suffering. We therefore need to examine the premise that the red dot system does exactly that.These figures are clearly worrying insofar as the 17% discrepancy is a wide margin. The figures still have to be viewed in context however as, although they represent the interpretation of as specialist (the radiologist) as compared with that of the non-specialist (the clinician), the paper does not hand any distinction amid the experience levels of the two sorts. The clinicians may be comparatively inexperienced casualty officers and the radiologists probably are consultant grade. If that is the case, then the figures are much less alarming. This point is discussed in detail further on in the piece (Williams et al 2000) where radiologists in training are compared to radiologists of consultant grade. The point is brought into sharper focus by consideration of the next two papers.Before we consider this aspect however, we need to evaluate the accuracy of reporting in the AE subdivision environment. Benger and Lyburn (2003) attempted to investigate ex actly that. They scrutinised the X-Ray output of an AE Department over a sixer month period (nearly 12,000 films). They identified the films which had discrepancies in reporting between the X-Ray staff and the AE Department staff. From the 12,000 films they found (only) 175 discrepancies. In clinical terms, this equated to a rate of 0.3% of patients who needed a change of prudence as a result. In all our deliberations on the overmatch, perhaps it is this that actually is the subjective criteria for whether a system works within tolerable limits or not. Different studies may chance on different discrepancy rates in interpretation of X-Ray films, but what is of practical value is the actual number of patients who require a change of management as a result. If a minor degree of subluxation of a proximal interphalangeal joint is missed by a casualty officer and subsequently picked up by a radiologist, it will appear on inventories of discrepancies such as the ones discussed above. I n terms of patient care or treatment, it will not make a scrap of difference. This point is made, rather more eloquently and in a different context, by Fineberg (1977) and the Institute of Medicine (1977).This point should not be taken lightly and indeed, it goes to the core of this piece. Academic studies may show different abnormality detection rates between the different professional groups. While recognising that these are clearly important, they are not the yardstick by which we must judge the red dot system. We have already examined two papers on the subject that have reported differences in abnormality detection at each end of the spectrum one of 17% and one of 1.5%. We should not be blinded by these figures themselves. What actually matters is the number of patients who have a change of management decision as a result of this discrepancy. The paper quoted above (Benger and Lyburn 2003) is one of the few which actually gives us this information. They quote an observed change of management in only 0.3% of patients which, for any system, is a very tolerable level of error. This is clearly a very fundamental point and one that we need to examine further. The next paper that we should consider looks at exactly this point and examines it in great detail.Taking a more academic approach Brealey and Scally (2001) tackle the difficult issue of just how to interpret the findings of a study that purports to evaluate the reading of X-Rays by two or more different professional groups. This is a very technical paper and is included here for the sake of completeness. It examines all of the possible margins for error and bias when reporting a trial. It throws little direct light onto our deliberations here because of its very technical nature, but it would be of considerable importance to one who wished to interpret the findings of a major trial independently. The point needs making that the trial design can influence the outcome of the trial (and therefore its useful ness) to a great extent. As we have made the point above, the actual figures produced at the end of the trial must be interpreted in the light of the trial design. Actual detected differences in readings between two groups of professionals may be of academic interest, but in the context of our examination of the red dot system, they are not nearly as important as a critical examination of the discrepancies which resulted in a change of patient menagement.On the direct issue of the red dot system, an almost immediate precursor to the system was reported in the BMJ in 1991 by Renwick et al. . He discussed a system that was tried out of getting radiologists to indicate their diagnoses on the pre-reported X-Rays, in order to guide the casualty officers in their decisions. The conclusions of the study were that, because of the high rate of false positive reporting (7%) and higher rate of false negatives (14%) it was appropriate for radiologists to offer useful advice but to take no more responsibility than that. We shall discuss the issues of false positives and false negatives further on in this piece and clearly they are an inherent problem with the system. It follows that we should, perhaps, address the reasons why there are these discrepancies and use them as a learning exercise to try to reduce the gap.In the excellent and concise article written by Touquet et al. (1995) the authors address the Ten Commandments of AE Department radiology. They discuss the red dot system in the following terms. uninitiated doctors will inevitably come across injuries that they have never seen before. In these cases it may not be possible to make a diagnosis but you will notice that the films do not look quite right. Good examples of this are lunate and perilunate dislocations of the hand. It is important to seek senior advice and also to listen to the radiographer. many departments channelise a red dot system, in which the radiographer flags up an abnormality. An experienced r adiographer may be as good as or even better than a junior doctor at interpreting films.The problem with this system is that the absence of a red dot does not necessary mean that there is no abnormality. This is important to remember because the final responsibility lies with the doctor, and not the radiographer. Therefore never accept poor quality or inadequate films.The most owing(p) point of this article is in the last paragraph. The absence of a red dot does not mean the absence of an abnormality and the liability lies with the doctor not the radiographer. This is clearly proper, as any experienced healthcare professional will state, any investigation (particularly an X-Ray) is only an adjunct to diagnosis, it is the person who is clinically in missionary work of the patient who has to assimilate all the available evidence to make a diagnosis. The radiographer has not seen the patient to examine, and certainly will not have to hand all of the another(prenominal) potential dia gnostic aids that are available in a modern AE Department. It is entirely reasonable to ask for his opinion on an X-Ray film, but it is not reasonable to hold him responsible for its definitive interpretation when he has not seen it in the context of the patient.This statement is behind the reasoning for the legal responsibility of X-Ray interpretation. It would be clearly out or keeping(p) to ask a radiographer for his opinion on a film and then make him responsible for any subsequent management decisions that were based on that opinion. Some commentators have criticised the red dot system for its clear lack of apportionment of responsibility to the radiographer. We would suggest that this shows a fundamental lack of appreciation of the problems problematical. The radiographers are trained to be experts in taking X-Ray films. They are not, and do not pretend to be, trained in the biological sciences and their applications to pathology and the human disease processes. It is quite a ppropriate to ask their opinion in an area of their expertise (the interpretation of the X-Ray film), but it is quite inappropriate to ask them to make clinical management decisions. For this reason, all questions of liability always rest on the clinician in charge of the patient, and it is only right that this should be the case.It is average to say that some of the views reviewed so far have been old school necessarily so, as the intention was to document the evolution of the red dot system. It is equally fair to state that we have only considered the use of the system in the AE Department. The truth of the matter is that in the recent past, the status of the radiographer has increase in professionalism both within their own speciality and within the NHS as a whole. Many of the comments made in some of the earlier papers quoted will therefore, now wait rather outmoded and not consistent with the modern experience of working in the NHS.To redress the balance we shall look at a n article from Papworth hospital by Sonnex et al (2001) . The authors describe a system currently in use at an acute cardiothoracic unit. Radiographers were asked to assess all the X-Rays taken over a six month trial period. Those that were assessed as showing acute changes had a red dot placed on them to denote an abnormality and these were then assessed by a radiologist. The success or failure rate was then measured against this standard.The figures are rather different from the figures quoted in the studies that looked at skeletal X-Ray in AE Departments. The reason for this is almost certainly that a chest X-Ray is notoriously hard to interpret, even more so when it is a post artisan X-Ray. The results were reported as a total sample of 8614, of which 464 (5%) had red dots applied. Over 100 of these were considered inappropriate. 38 X-Rays which were abnormal were not picked up. It would appear that radiographers tend to err on the side of circumspection when reviewing an abnor mal chest X-Ray, even more so when previous comparative films were not available for comparison. This particular study had a high false positive rate.One should not lose sight of the fact that the radiographers concerned were dealing with a different population to those that we were considering earlier. The patients were generally very ill and often in a post operative state making assessment far more critical than perhaps the colder X-Ray of the AE Department where decisions could reasonably be decelerate safely for 24-48 hrs. there was therefore perhaps far more pressure on them to report any possible abnormality. It is also appropriate to comment that this was the first stage of a study which then went on to review the radiographers procedure after a further period of training. One would reasonably anticipate a higher agreement rate after appropriate training.As we have already seen the red dot system has evolved in several different variants. The introductory premise is the s ame in each case how is it possible to minimise the potential sources of error caused by inexperience? A further variant is outlined by Williams et al (2000). His paper title specifically involves the cost effectiveness of the scheme as well as the overall impact on patient management. In this scheme ( which was running at the Radcliffe Hospital in Oxford) the original AE Department films were reviewed by radiologists-in-training. They identified 684 incorrect diagnoses over a one yr period. These were then called red reports and reviewed by a consultant radiologist. During this process 351 missed fractures were detected with ankle, finger and elbow fractures being the main areas where pathology was missed. Williams also reported 11 incidences of pathology on a chest X-Ray as being missed. This amplifies the point made earlier that the radiologists-in-training tended to produce false positives at a rate of intimately 18% when compared to the subsequent, more expert opinion.In thi s particular study, further action was taken by the AE Department staff in 42% of those cases although no operative intervention was required in any patient as a result of the missed diagnosis. Despite these figures, it must be noted that these cases form a very small percentage of the X-Rays taken in a busy AE DepartmentFalse positives and false negativesWe have looked at a number of studies that have compared radiographers interpretations of X-Ray films against that of a Consultant Radiologist who has generally been used as the Gold Standard. The difference between the two sets of interpretations is then subdivided into false positives and false negatives. This group is actually the most important as it is firstly an distinction of the usefulness of the whole system of red dot reporting and secondly it is also an indication of how much more training any particular reader (radiographer or casualty officer ), of the films has to undergo, in order to make fully competent assessments .The false positive is the situation where the radiographer has identified a problem that is not there. Conversely, the false negative is when they have missed pathology that is there. In most of the assessments that we have seen, there are more false positives than negatives. This implies that the radiographers are being over cautious when confronted with an equivocal film.Several of the papers that we have seen so far have stated (either explicitly or otherwise) that the absence of a red dot does not imply the absence of any pathology. Any common-sense analysis of the situation would suggest that this is clearly self-evident. It must be the case where two highly trained but clearly not expert healthcare professionals are looking at a film for pathology, they are probably more likely to arrive at the right answer than one alone.Brealey (2005) produced a Meta-analysis of studies involving radiographers input in interpreting films and found that radiographers involved either in the red dot system of X-Ray reading improved with experience and with training, acquired an accuracy approaching that of radiologists when dealing with skeletal X-Rays.The red dot system is designed to utilise the expertise of specially trained radiographers to interpret plain X-Rays. From the evidence presented above we can say that there is evidence that radiographers are clearly more expert in interpreting plain skeletal X-Rays than chest X-Rays or visceral radiographs. The red dot system appears to be a growing movement within the profession. A paper by Brealey (2003) pointed out the fact that between 1968 and 1991 the radiologists workload increased by 322% but the number of posts increased by only 213%. As a result of this the number of films successfully reported within 48hrs fell to 60%. As a result of this social movement the Royal College of Radiologists decided to endorse the trend of radiographers giving indications of pathology on X-Rays . Brealeys paper examines the init ial cohort of radiographers who were trained under this scheme and found that, statistically, there was no significant difference between the reading of an X-Ray by a radiographer or a radiologist (in the case of plain skeletal X-Rays) which supports the view that the red dot system is viable.Any examination of this issue would be incomplete without a consideration of the detailed and analytical paper by Friedenberg (2000) which he provocatively entitled The advent of the supertechnologist. It is particularly relevant to our consideration of the red dot system and the role of the radiographer as it looks at the background to the whole issue. Friedenberg uses the term acquirement mix as a specific term to define the current trend in medicine away from specialisation and departmentalisation and towards the communal utilisation of expertise from different individuals in related fields to complement or increase the expertise available to patients. He points out that this is not actual ly a unused concept and cites the optician who relieves the workload of the ophthalmologist and the nurse specialist anaesthetist who relieves the anaesthesiologist by performing uncomplicated procedures. He quotes a whole host of paramedic providers who now assist the physician, in most cases without problemsLoughran et al (1996a, 1996b, 1992) have specifically looked at the practicality of utilising the skills of the radiographer to better advantage than just taking the films.He contrasts the difference in practice between the UK and the USA, citing the cause of the complete separation of the roles of radiographer and radiologist in the USA as being due to the fact that in the USA, the radiologists still operate largely on a fee-per-service basis whereas in the UK the pressure is primarily on clinicians to become more efficient and to keep costs down.Friedenberg, interestingly also examines the evolution of the legality of the roles of radiographer and radiologist.Between 1900 an d 1920, there was competition between radiographers and radiologists with regard to the performance of radiography and the interpretation of radiographs. In the middle 1920s in England, radiographers were veto from accepting patients for radiography except under the direction of a qualified medical practitioner (Quotes Larkin 1983)After this the professions came closer and by 1971 Swinburne (1971) was suggesting that radiographers could perfectly well recognise normal from abnormal films, which after all is the basis behind the red dot system . As we have discussed earlier, this move then progressed into the first formal appearance of the red dot system in North Park Hospital in 1985. The first trials of the system found that approximately half of the abnormalities that were not picked up by the junior casualty officers were detected by the radiographers. The early safe guards were outlined by Loughran (1996) as follows1. It is made clear to the referring physician that the report is a technologists report. The physician is encouraged to consult the radiologist if there is a lack of clinical correlation.2. The technologist must consult the radiologist if he or she is in doubt.3. The physicians, radiologists, and technologists have devised a set of guidelines to create a safe environment for this practice.4. Initially, the technologists practice is monitored on a regular basis. After the technologist is experienced, however, observe is no longer performed. Such monitoring should be performed if a new technologist enters this practice.Interestingly, Loughran also subsequently produced a set of guidelines for the radiographer 1. The technologist should be positive in his or her report.2. In cases of doubt, a radiologists opinion should be obtained.3. In such cases, although the report may be issued by the reporting technologist, the consultants name should be appended to the report.4. All reports by a technologist should be clearly designated as a technologis ts report.5. If the patient re-presents for radiography of the same body part within 2 months, this should be reported by a radiologist.6. Non-trauma examination findings should be reported by the radiologist.7. All accident department images in patients who are subsequently admitted as inpatients should be reported by the radiologist.8. Clinicians are to be advised to consult the radiologist if clinical findings do not match those in the technologists report.9. Regular feature reporting sessions are to be held with the consultant radiologist.Robinson (1999) Defines the ideal areas for radiographers and radiologists with the following definition between cognitive and procedural tasks thusProcedural tasks can be described, defined, taught, and subjected to performance standards that make them transferable to other staff with appropriate training. Cognitive tasks that are related not only to the interpretation of images but also to decisions about differential diagnosis and appropri ate choice of further investigations are more difficult.We have examined the evolution of the red dot system and there have been moves towards the logical approach beyond the radiographer simply indicating that there may be a problem to the situation where radiographer who have undertaken further training have developed their skills in other ways as well, but this is beyond the scope of this piece. Perhaps we should leave the last thought to Friedenberg who envisages the future as being the era of the Supertechnologist and it is the specialist who is odd to do a small number of very highly specialised procedures.References1. Jonathan Aldridge, Peter Freeland, (2000) Safety of systems can often be improved BMJ 2000321505 ( 19 sumptuous )2. The Audit Commission (1995). Improving Your Image How to manage Radiology Services More Effectively. London HMSO.19953. Victor Barley, Graham Neale, Christopher Burns-Cox, Paul Savage, Sam Machin, Adel El-Sobky, Anne Savage (2000) trim error, improving safety BMJ 2000321505 ( 19 August )4. Beggs I, Davidson JK 1990. AE reporting in UK teaching departments. Clinical Radiology, 41, 264-267.5. J R Benger, I D Lyburn (2003) What is the effect of reporting all emergency department radiographs? Emerg Med J 2003 2040-43n.6. Benger JR. (2002) Can nurses working in remote units accurately request and interpret radiographs? Emerg Med J. 2002 jan19(1)68-707. S Brealey, A J Scally (2001) Bias in plain film reading performance studies British Journal of Radiology 74 (2001),307-3168. S Brealey, D G King, M T I Crowe, I Crawshaw, L Ford, N G Warnock, R A J Mannion, S Ethell,(2003) Accident and Emergency and General Practitioner plain radiograph reporting by radiographers and radiologists a quasi-randomised controlled trial British Journal of Radiology (2003) 76, 57-619. Brealey S, Scally A, Hahn S, Thomas N, Godfrey C, Coomarasamy A. (2005) Accuracy of radiographer plain radiograph reporting in clinical practice a meta-analysis. Clin R adiol. 2005 Feb60(2)232-4110. Brennan TA, Leape LL, Laird NM, Herbert L, Localio AR, Lawthers AG, (1991) Incidence of adverse events and negligence in hospitalised patients results of the Harvard Medical Practice study. N Engl J Med 1991 324 370-37611. Clinical Services Committee, British Association for Accident and Emergency Medicine. X-ray reporting for accident and emergency departments. London BAEM, 1983. (Currently under revision.)12. C K Connolly (2000) Relation between reported mishaps and safety is unclearBMJ 2000321505 ( 19 August )13. Fineberg HV, Bauman R, Sosman M. (1997) Computerised cranial tomography effect on diagnostic and therapeutic plans. Institute of Medicine. Policy statement Computed tomographic scanning. Washington DC National Academy of Sciences, JAMA 1977238224-7.14. Richard M. Friedenberg, (2000) The Role of the Supertechnologist Radiology. 2000215630-633.)15. Johansson H, Rf L. (1997) A compilation of diagnostic errors in Swedish health care. Missed diag nosis is most often a fracture.Lakartidningen 1997 94 3848-385016. Pia Maria Jonsson, Gran Tomson, Lars Rf, (2000) No fault compensation protects patients in Nordic countries BMJ 2000321505 ( 19 August )17. G de Lacey, A Barker, J Harper and B Wignall An assessment of the clinical effects of reporting accident and emergency radiographs18. Larkin G. (1983) Occupational monopoly and modern medicine London, England Tavistock, 1983.19. DD Loughran CF, Alltree J, Raynor RB, (1996) Skill mix changes in departments of radiology impact on radiologists workloadreports of a scientific session.

The Influenza :: Spanish Influenza Essays

The InfluenzaIt was while to bring in the crops--this was one of the best eld Id ever had. For the first time in a long time, I was looking forward to getting into the field to gather the crop Id worked so sound to grow. A farmers life is never easy, but this was my year. Id managed to get more land, and I was way past the days of just putting food on my familys table. The downslope of 1918 turned out to be one of the worst times of my life. I had a rather large family--two boys and two girls. They were each teenagers in 1918. My wife, my children, and I all lived in Riley County, Kansas. Fort Rileys battalion Funston brought a lot of activity into the area. In the filiation of 1918, there were soldiers there preparing to go overseas to join in the battles. The soldiers brought rising life to our community, as wellhead as chaos. We were happy, for the most part, to keep the soldiers around our community, until their presence proved too costly. As I mentioned, in September of 1918, I was eager to get to the fall harvesting. All of my children were excited and ready to help, as they knew the harvest would bring money into the household. Wed heard about the flu at campsite Funston, and Id told my family to steer clear of any wayward soldiers. My youngest son began to hang around the camp, against my wishes, in order to see what was occurring there. He and his friends made a habit of mouse around the outside. Wed managed since the spring to parry influenza. We heard from workers inside the fort that the soldiers were dying quickly, but we all assumed that it would stay inside the camp and away from our families. flyspeck by little, in the fall, influenza began to creep into the communities around the camp. I thought I was fortunate in that none of my neighbors worked in or near camp Funston, and I didnt expect to have to deal with any sickness. My family was warned, and everyone in the communities around the camp was being as care ful as possible to keep the influenza from spreading. Then my son brought influenza, the soldiers problem, into our family.The Influenza Spanish Influenza EssaysThe InfluenzaIt was time to bring in the crops--this was one of the best years Id ever had. For the first time in a long time, I was looking forward to getting into the field to gather the crop Id worked so hard to grow. A farmers life is never easy, but this was my year. Id managed to get more land, and I was way past the days of just putting food on my familys table. The fall of 1918 turned out to be one of the worst times of my life. I had a rather large family--two boys and two girls. They were all teenagers in 1918. My wife, my children, and I all lived in Riley County, Kansas. Fort Rileys Camp Funston brought a lot of activity into the area. In the fall of 1918, there were soldiers there preparing to go overseas to join in the battles. The soldiers brought new life to our community, as well as chaos. We were happy, for the most part, to have the soldiers around our community, until their presence proved too costly. As I mentioned, in September of 1918, I was eager to get to the fall harvesting. All of my children were excited and ready to help, as they knew the harvest would bring money into the household. Wed heard about the influenza at Camp Funston, and Id told my family to steer clear of any wayward soldiers. My youngest son began to hang around the camp, against my wishes, in order to see what was occurring there. He and his friends made a habit of sneaking around the outside. Wed managed since the spring to avoid influenza. We heard from workers inside the fort that the soldiers were dying quickly, but we all assumed that it would stay inside the camp and away from our families.Little by little, in the fall, influenza began to creep into the communities around the camp. I thought I was fortunate in that none of my neighbors worked in or near Camp Funston, and I didnt e xpect to have to deal with any sickness. My family was warned, and everyone in the communities around the camp was being as careful as possible to keep the influenza from spreading. Then my son brought influenza, the soldiers problem, into our family.

Imagry in the Fall of the House of Usher :: essays papers

Imagry in the Fall of the Ho workout of Usher Imagery in The Fall of the House of Usher The translation of the landscape in any story is important as it creates a vivid imagery of the scene and helps to develop the mood. Edgar Allan Poe is a master at victimisation imagery to improve the effects of his stories. He tends to use the landscapes to symbolize some important aspect of the story. Also, he makes use of the landscape to produce a nonnatural effect and to induce horror. In particular, Poe makes great use of these tools in The Fall of the House of Usher. This story depends on the portrayal of the house itself to create a authoritative atmosphere and to relate to the Usher family. In The Fall of the House of Usher, Edgar Allan Poe uses the landscape to develop an atmosphere of horror and to create corollary to the Usher family. Poe uses the life-like characteristics of the house as a device for giving the house a supernatural presence. The house is described as having so mewhat supernatural characteristics. The windows appear to be vacant and eye-like (1462). The strange genius of the house is further explained as around the mansion, there hung an atmosphere peculiar to themselves and their immediate vicinity. (1462). This demonstrates that the house and its surroundings have an unusual and bizarre existence. Upon entering the house, the storyteller views some objects, such as the tapestries on the walls and the trophies, fill him with a sense of superstition. He describes the trophies as phantasmagoric (1462). He further explains that the house and the contents were the bring forth of his feelings. He describes his superstition one night, I endeavored to believe that much, if not all of what I felt, was due to the phantasmagoric influence of the gloomy furniture of the room (1468). Hence, Poe makes use of the house to create a supernatural effect. Likewise, Poe describes the house to create a terrifying effect. The Fall of the House of Usher is a horror story. In couch to develop a mood to get the reader frightened, Poe must portray the setting of the story. The house is described initially by the narrator, who sees the image of the house as a skull or deaths head looming out of the dead. He is not sure what to think and comments of the properties of the old house What was it, I paused to think, what was it that so discompose me in the contemplation of the house of Usher?

Criticism Of Shame :: essays research papers

Criticism of Shame          Shame, published in 1983, a year before his most famous work The Satanic Verses, presents a fabulistic account in a country that disturbingly represents Pakistan. Critically, Shame is compared to Midnight&8217s Children because the of its resemblances in themes and style. The idea for Shame, reported interviewer Ronal Hayman in Books and Bookmen, grew out of Rushdie&8217s interest in the Pakistani concept of sharam, a word that denotes a hybrid of embarrassment, discomfiture, decency, humoursty, and a sense of having an ordained place in the cosmea. Reaction to Shame was mostly irrefutable many applauded the style of Rushdie&8217s work and the themes it presented .     Many critics appreciated the subject matter and presentation of Rushdie&8217s work. Cathleen Medwick in Vogue stated, "His parvenue overbold. . . reveals the writer in sure control of his extravagant, mischievo us, graceful, polemical imagination. (414, Editor) "Magic realism", a technique often employed by Rushdie is essential to the structure of how the tommyrot of the book is conveyed. Michael Gorra&8217s characterization of Rushdie&8217s style stated, "His prose prances, a declaration of freedom, an self-reliance that Shame can be whatever he wants it to be coy and teasing an ironic and brutal all at once. . .Rushdie&8217s work is responsive to the world rather than removed from it, and it is because of this responsiveness that the mode in which he work represents the continued life of the novel. . . and one wants something better to describe it that the term &8216magical realism&8217&8212 is an assertion of individual freedom in a world where freedom is strangle. . . "(360, Editor) Christopher Lehmann-Haupt boldly asserts, "If Mr. Rushdie had followed the logic of realistic psychology in Shame, he would have robbed his novel of its spectral magi c, its sectionalization of narrative logic that allows time to rush suddenly forward and reveal the end of things, or permits characters to be reincarnated in each other. He would have robbed his novel of the truth&8212not precisely the truth of the parable or allegory or myth, but the truth of a narrative that describes a world apart and is a system accurate and logical only unto itself"(356, Editor) Lehmann-Haupt then goes on to compare Shame to Midnight&8217s Children ". . .this doesn&8217t write down to account for the extravagantly tragicomic nightmare evoked by Shame, which does for Pakistan what Mr. Rushdie&8217s equally remarkable first novel, Midnight&8217s Children did for Inida.